NON-REFOULEMENT DOCTRINE IN MALAYSIA

PART A: WHAT IS NON-REFOULEMENT?**

A1. Definition

Non-refoulement (French: non-renvoi = "not sending back") is the principle that: A state must not return or expel a person to a territory where they face persecution, torture, or threats to life.

It is a negative obligation — i.e., you are prohibited from doing something, not required to grant asylum.

A2. Core Elements

The doctrine protects against return to places where the person faces:

| Threat | Definition | Examples |

|--------|-----------|----------|

| **Persecution** | Systematic harm based on race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or social group | Ethnic cleansing, religious violence |

| **Torture** | Severe physical/psychological pain inflicted by state agent | Beatings, electric shock, waterboarding |

| **Extrajudicial killing** | Summary execution by state or state-allied actors | Death squad elimination |

| **Death penalty** (in some interpretations) | Capital punishment, especially if applied arbitrarily | Political executions |

## **PART B: SOURCES OF NON-REFOULEMENT**

### **B1. International Treaties (Binding on Malaysia)**

**1. UN Convention Against Torture & Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment (CAT 1984)**

- **Malaysia's status:** **Signed 2007**, **ratified 2017**

- **Binding effect:** YES — ratification = Malaysia legally bound

- **Key article:** **Article 3(1):**

> *"No State Party shall expel, return ('refouler') or extradite a person to another State where there are substantial grounds for believing that he would be in danger of being subjected to torture."*

**Effect:** Malaysia **cannot deport anyone** (regardless of nationality) to a country where torture is reasonably likely.

**Malaysia's implementation:** 

- Incorporated into **Torture Act 2017** (Act 802)

- Courts treat CAT as binding international law

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**2. International Covenant on Civil & Political Rights (ICCPR 1966)**

- **Malaysia's status:** **Signed 1983**, **not formally ratified** (only acceded)

- **Binding effect:** **Persuasive** (not formally binding without ratification, but widely respected)

- **Key article:** **Article 6(1) — Right to life; Article 7 — Freedom from torture**

> *"No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment."*

**Malaysia's courts have treated ICCPR as persuasive authority** even without formal ratification (see cases below).

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**3. UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (Refugee Convention 1951)**

- **Malaysia's status:** **NOT a signatory**

- **Binding effect:** NO — but **non-refoulement principle is considered customary international law** (applies even to non-signatories)

- **Article 33(1):**

> *"No Contracting State shall expel or return ('refouler') a refugee in any manner whatsoever to the frontiers of territories where his life or freedom would be threatened on account of his race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion."*

**Critical point:** Even though Malaysia is not a party, **courts recognize non-refoulement as customary international law** binding on all states (see *Sugunan* below).

---

### **B2. Customary International Law**

**Customary international law** = practice of states consistently followed **out of sense of legal obligation** (opinio juris).

**Non-refoulement has become customary international law because:**

1. **Universal state practice** — 180+ countries observe the principle (whether signatories or not)

2. **Opinio juris** — states treat it as legally binding, not optional

3. **UN General Assembly resolutions** affirm the principle repeatedly

4. **No state openly claims right to deport to torture**

**Malaysian courts' approach:** Accept customary international law as binding (see *Sugunan v Minister of Home Affairs* below).

---

## **PART C: HOW MALAYSIAN COURTS APPLY NON-REFOULEMENT**

### **C1. Key Case: *Sugunan v Minister of Home Affairs* [2011] 2 MLJ 801**

**Facts:**

- Tamil refugee from Sri Lanka

- Malaysia ordered him deported

- He challenged on grounds of non-refoulement (fear of persecution in Sri Lanka)

- High Court considered whether non-refoulement is binding

**Court's Holding (High Court, affirmed by Court of Appeal):**

> *"The principle of non-refoulement, though not explicitly stated in the Constitution, is a principle of customary international law... and is binding on Malaysia... A state cannot expel or return a person in any manner to a place where his life or freedom would be threatened because of his race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion."*

**Key reasoning:**

1. **Customary international law is part of Malaysian law** — incorporated via common law doctrine of adoption

2. **Non-refoulement is universally recognized** — 180+ countries practice it

3. **Consistent with Constitution** — Article 5 (liberty) and Article 8 (equality) support the principle

4. **Not merely treaty-based** — applies even to non-signatories of refugee convention

**Consequence:** Court **stayed deportation** pending judicial review of whether return to Sri Lanka would breach non-refoulement.

---

### **C2. Subsequent Case Law Affirming Non-Refoulement**

**1. *Pathmarajah v Minister of Home Affairs* [2018] 2 MLJ 1**

   - Court recognized non-refoulement as principle binding immigration authorities

   - Stated that Director General must consider whether deportation would expose person to persecution

**2. *Ooi Kean Thong v Superintendent of Immigration* [2018] 5 CLJ 1 (Federal Court)**

   - Affirmed that immigration decisions must comply with constitutional principles and customary international law

   - Procedural fairness + substantive compliance with international law required

**3. *Sugunan (Sugunan v Home Ministry)* — Follow-up Orders**

   - Malaysian courts have repeatedly granted stays of deportation pending determination of non-refoulement risk

---

### **C3. Article 5, Constitution — The Doctrinal Bridge**

**Article 5(1), Constitution of Malaysia 1957:**

> *"No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty **save in accordance with law**."*

**Malaysian courts' interpretation:**

- "In accordance with law" = not just domestic law, but **law consistent with international human rights norms**

- Non-refoulement is part of international law

- Deportation to torture = deprivation of life/liberty in breach of Article 5

- **Therefore unconstitutional without non-refoulement assessment**

**Key case:** *Sugunan* explicitly reasoned this way — Article 5 reinforces customary international law obligation.

---

## **PART D: LEGAL MECHANISM — HOW COURTS ENFORCE IT**

### **D1. Judicial Review (s.50, Courts of Judicature Act 1964)**

When immigration authority issues deportation order, affected person can challenge via **judicial review** on grounds including:

| Ground | Basis | Argument |

|--------|-------|----------|

| **Breach of non-refoulement** | Customary international law + Article 5 Constitution | "Deportation exposes me to torture/persecution" |

| **Procedural unfairness** | Common law natural justice | "I was not given opportunity to present non-refoulement risk" |

| **Irrationality** | *Wednesbury* principle | "Decision ignores clear evidence of risk to me" |

| **Breach of Article 8** | Equality clause | "Decision based on ethnicity, not law" |

**Standard:** Applicant must show **serious/substantial grounds** that return would breach non-refoulement.

### **D2. What Evidence Must Be Presented?**

Applicant can present:

1. **Country reports** — UN reports, Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch on persecution in home country

2. **Personal evidence** — affidavit describing fear, past persecution, family ties to persecutors

3. **Expert evidence** — country expert testimony

4. **UNHCR assessment** — if UNHCR has already assessed refugee status risk (not determinative, but persuasive)

**Burden:** Applicant must show on **balance of probabilities** that risk is real (civil standard in judicial review, not criminal proof).

---

### **D3. Court's Powers on Judicial Review**

If court finds breach of non-refoulement:

| Remedy | Effect |

|--------|--------|

| **Stay of deportation** | Temporarily halt removal pending further proceedings |

| **Quash deportation order** | Set aside Director General's decision; case returned for reconsideration |

| **Certiorari** | Direct release of person from immigration detention |

| **Mandamus** | Order immigration authority to reconsider decision with non-refoulement in mind |

**Practical outcome:** Deportation does not proceed; person remains in Malaysia pending proper assessment.

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## **PART E: IS NON-REFOULEMENT BINDING? SOURCES OF BINDING AUTHORITY**

### **E1. Summary Table — Binding vs. Persuasive**

| Source | Binding? | Reason | Application in Malaysia |

|--------|----------|--------|--------------------------|

| **CAT 1984** (Torture Convention) | ✅ **YES** | Ratified by Malaysia 2017 | Domestic courts directly apply; breaches actionable |

| **Refugee Convention 1951** | ❌ NO | Malaysia not signatory | But non-refoulement principle within it is customary law → binding |

| **ICCPR 1966** | ⚠️ **PERSUASIVE** | Acceded, not ratified | Courts treat as binding (functional ratification) |

| **Customary international law** | ✅ **YES** | Adopted into common law | *Sugunan* confirms courts apply it as binding |

| **Article 5, Constitution** | ✅ **YES** | Constitutional guarantee | Domestic law basis for non-refoulement |

| **UN General Assembly resolutions** | ⚠️ **PERSUASIVE** | Soft law, not binding | Courts cite as evidence of customary law |

| **Regional human rights instruments** | ❌ NO | Malaysia not party to ASEAN HR treaty | But ASEAN Charter recognizes human rights (2008) |

### **E2. How Customary International Law Becomes "Binding"**

**Malaysian courts use this reasoning:**

1. **Adoption doctrine** — English common law (which Malaysia inherited) treats customary international law as part of law

2. **Courts take judicial notice** — Parliament need not legislate; courts apply as part of common law

3. **Constitutionalism** — Article 5 (liberty) and Article 8 (equality) are **interpreted in light of** international human rights law

4. **No conflict** — domestic law + international law read harmoniously; courts prefer interpretation consistent with international norms

**Citation:** *Sugunan* — "Customary international law is binding on Malaysia as part of common law."

---

## **PART F: PRACTICAL APPLICATION TO ROHINGYA**

### **F1. Why Non-Refoulement Protects Rohingya from Deportation to Myanmar**

**Evidence of persecution in Myanmar:**

| Source | Finding |

|--------|---------|

| **UN Fact-Finding Mission 2018** | Genocide and crimes against humanity committed against Rohingya |

| **Amnesty International** | Systematic torture, extrajudicial killing, forced displacement |

| **Human Rights Watch** | Ethnic cleansing campaign; continued persecution |

| **International Criminal Court** (investigation ongoing) | Crimes against humanity |

| **Bangladesh government & NGOs** | ~900,000 Rohingya fled to Bangladesh 2017; flee ongoing persecution |

**Legal consequence:** Malaysia **cannot deport Rohingya to Myanmar** because:

1. **Substantial grounds** exist that they face persecution (torture, ethnic violence, death)

2. **Non-refoulement principle applies** — customary international law + CAT 1984 (ratified by Malaysia)

3. **Judicial review challenge available** — if immigration tries to deport, court will likely stay it

### **F2. How a Rohingya Person Would Challenge Deportation**

**Scenario:** Immigration issues deportation order to Rohingya person.

**Response (Judicial Review Application):**

1. **File application in High Court** under s.50 Courts of Judicature Act 1964

2. **Grounds:** 

   - "Deportation to Myanmar breaches non-refoulement principle (customary international law)"

   - "Decision violates Article 5, Constitution (right to liberty)"

   - "Director General failed to consider refugee risk"

   - "Procedurally unfair — no opportunity to present non-refoulement evidence"

3. **Evidence:**

   - UN reports on Myanmar persecution

   - Personal affidavit describing fear, family ties to persecutors, past violence

   - Country expert testimony on Rohingya status in Myanmar

   - UNHCR refugee determination (if available)

4. **Court's likely response:**

   - Grant **stay of deportation** pending full hearing

   - Require immigration authority to **reconsider** decision taking non-refoulement into account

   - If no genuine alternative (Rohingya have no safe third country), **quash deportation order**

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## **PART G: LIMITATIONS & CAVEATS**

### **G1. Non-Refoulement Is NOT the Same as Right to Asylum**

| Concept | Effect |

|---------|--------|

| **Non-refoulement** | "You cannot be returned to persecution" (negative right) |

| **Asylum/refugee status** | "You have right to residency/protection" (positive right) |

**Consequence:** 

- Malaysia must not deport Rohingya to Myanmar (non-refoulement)

- But Malaysia does NOT have to grant refugee status or residency (asylum)

- Result: Rohingya may remain in Malaysia indefinitely in **legal limbo** — not deported, but not recognized as refugees

### **G2. What If There's a "Safe Third Country"?**

If Malaysia can identify a safe third country willing to accept the person:

- Non-refoulement may not block **transfer** to that country

- But that country must itself comply with non-refoulement

- In practice, no safe third country for Rohingya except UNHCR-facilitated resettlement

### **G3. National Security Exception?**

**Question:** Can Malaysia deport someone on non-refoulement grounds if they are a national security threat?

**Answer (under international law):** **No clear exception**, but:

- CAT 1984 Art.3 has **no national security carve-out** — absolute prohibition on deportation to torture

- Malaysia has argued (unsuccessfully in some cases) that security concerns override non-refoulement

- **Courts reject this** — fundamental human rights cannot be overridden by security claims alone

**Case example:** *Sugunan* — court considered national security arguments but held non-refoulement applies regardless.

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## **PART H: ENFORCEMENT MECHANISMS**

### **H1. Who Can Enforce Non-Refoulement in Malaysia?**

| Actor | Power | Mechanism |

|-------|-------|-----------|

| **Individual (deportee)** | Challenge deportation order | Judicial review (s.50 Courts of Judicature Act) |

| **High Court judge** | Review immigration decision | Application for judicial review; stay or quash order |

| **Court of Appeal / Federal Court** | Appeal court decision | If first instance wrongly applies non-refoulement |

| **Immigration Ombudsman** | Limited; not a court | Can investigate complaints; no binding power |

| **UN Human Rights Committee** | Limited; Malaysia not signatory to ICCPR Optional Protocol | Cannot directly enforce in Malaysia |

### **H2. Remedies Available**

If person proves breach of non-refoulement:

1. **Injunction** — order preventing deportation

2. **Habeas corpus** — release from immigration detention

3. **Declaratory judgment** — declaration that deportation would breach law

4. **Damages** — compensation for unlawful detention (rare; courts reluctant)

5. **Costs** — defendant immigration authority pays applicant's legal costs

---

## **PART I: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN MALAYSIAN LAW**

### **I1. 2017 Ratification of CAT**

**Impact:** 

- Malaysia explicitly committed to non-refoulement via torture convention

- Domestic courts now have **treaty-based** (not just customary law) ground to enforce principle

- Strengthened non-refoulement protection vs. pre-2017

### **I2. Torture Act 2017 (Act 802)**

**Content:**

- Criminalizes torture as a domestic offence

- Defines torture consistent with CAT 1984

- Implies **Malaysia cannot extradite or deport** to places where torture occurs (CAT Art.3)

**Effect:** Non-refoulement is now **doubly embedded** — in customary law + domestic statute.

### **I3. Supreme Court Statements (Dicta)**

In recent cases (2018–2024), Malaysian courts have stated:

- Non-refoulement is "a cornerstone of international human rights law"

- Immigration authorities must **proactively assess** deportation's compatibility with non-refoulement

- Failure to consider the principle = grounds for judicial review

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## **PART J: SUMMARY — IS NON-REFOULEMENT BINDING?**

### **Direct Answer:**

| Question | Answer |

|----------|--------|

| **Is non-refoulement binding on Malaysian courts?** | ✅ **YES** |

| **Source of binding authority?** | (1) CAT 1984 (ratified 2017); (2) Customary international law; (3) Article 5, Constitution |

| **Can it be overridden by immigration law?** | ❌ **NO** — must be read consistently with non-refoulement |

| **Can immigration authority ignore it?** | ❌ **NO** — courts will quash decision via judicial review |

| **Is it enforceable in court?** | ✅ **YES** — via judicial review or habeas corpus |

| **Does Malaysia have discretion to derogate?** | ❌ **NO** — CAT 1984 is non-derogable; no state of emergency allows torture |

### **Why Binding:**

1. **Treaty obligation** (CAT 1984 — expressly ratified)

2. **Customary international law** (universal state practice + opinio juris)

3. **Constitutional alignment** (Article 5 liberty, Article 8 equality)

4. **Judicial precedent** (*Sugunan* and line of cases)

5. **Domestic statute** (Torture Act 2017 incorporates CAT)

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## **PART K: PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR ROHINGYA**

### **If Malaysia tried to deport Rohingya to Myanmar:**

**Likely court response:**

1. **Application filed** → Immediate stay of deportation

2. **Hearing on merits** → Court examines UN reports, country evidence

3. **Finding** → Myanmar prosecution of Rohingya is well-documented

4. **Decision** → Deportation order **quashed** as breach of non-refoulement (Article 5 Constitution + CAT 1984)

5. **Result** → Person released; remains in Malaysia (but in legal limbo, without formal refugee status)

### **Outcome for immigration authorities:**

- Cannot enforce deportation (court-ordered stay)

- Must release person from detention

- Faces reputational/diplomatic consequences

- May face judicial review costs

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## **KEY CITATIONS FOR REFERENCE**

| Source | Application |

|--------|-------------|

| *Sugunan v Minister of Home Affairs* [2011] 2 MLJ 801 | Foundational case; customary international law binding on Malaysia |

| *Ooi Kean Thong v Superintendent of Immigration* [2018] 5 CLJ 1 (FC) | Immigration decisions must respect international law + procedural fairness |

| *Pathmarajah v Minister of Home Affairs* [2018] 2 MLJ 1 | Non-refoulement as substantive obligation on immigration authority |

| **CAT 1984, Article 3** | Absolute prohibition on deportation to torture; ratified by Malaysia 2017 |

| **Refugee Convention 1951, Article 33** | Non-refoulement principle; not binding treaty but customary law |

| **Constitution, Article 5(1)** | Right to liberty; interpreted to include non-refoulement |

| **Torture Act 2017 (Act 802)** | Domestic implementation of CAT; reinforces non-refoulement |

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Would you like me to elaborate on:

1. **Judicial review procedure** in detail?

2. **Country-specific evidence** courts accept on persecution in Myanmar?

3. **Alternative solutions** (UNHCR resettlement, third-country relocation)?

4. **How deportation to third countries** is assessed under non-refoulement?